history

May Day/Beltane

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May Day marks the true climax of Spring and transition into Summer in the Northern regions. During this month, lots of plants and herbs begin to emerge after the long winter, bringing a plethora of flora and fauna to the land. On May Day, many Pagans resurrect (uncover) their idols of fertility and parade them through the towns and fields, blessing them for the upcoming agricultural year. In the past, this idol would have been housed in a cart or wagon and was presided over by specific individuals. Sometimes, these exclusive ritual participants were killed after laying eyes on the goddess in the wagon.

Jones & Pennick refer to this in “A History of Pagan Europe,” stating:

“The tribes around the mouth of the Elbe and in the south of modern Denmark are the ones who, as is now well known, worshiped Nerthus, Mother Earth. They saw her as intervening in human affairs and riding among her people in a wagon drawn by cows. The priest of Nerthus would sense when she was ready to leave her island shrine, and then with deep reverence would follow the wagon on its tour through the lands of her people, which would be the occasion for a general holiday, the only time when these warlike people put down their arms. At the end of the perambulation, the wagon and its contents would be washed in a lake by slaves who were then drowned. Noone was allowed to see the goddess on pain of death.”

In many cases, this idol was a goddess, and in others, a god would have taken its place, most notably Freyr. The idol that represented the god/goddess/spirit would be housed in the wagon, other times, a living person was chosen to embody the specific deity. Everyone would treat the person as if he/she was the actual deity themselves, dressing them in flowers and other pleasant things, parading them around in reverence.

Bonfires are customary during this time. Many people perform purification rituals using smoke and various other substances to cleanse themselves for the new year. Birch wood was most commonly used for these purposes and the smoke created would thus be walked through or “bathed” in. This was done to cleanse oneself and family of evil, sickness, and bad luck. Not only people, but livestock were said to be paraded through a pair of fires, ensuring a prosperous year, good health, and good harvests.

In “Celtic Mythology and Religion”, Macbain refers to the writings of Cormac:

“Most authorities hold, with Cormac, that there were two fires, between which and through which they passed their cattle and even their children. Criminals were made to stand between the two fires, and hence the proverb, in regard to a person in extreme danger, as the Rev. D Macqueen gives it, “He is betwixt two Beltein fires.”

Beltane bonfires are also referenced in “A History of Pagan Europe” by Jones & Pennick, where it says:

“The second great festival of the year was Beltane or Cétshamhain (1 May, May Day). This was the beginning of the summer half of the year, also a pastoralist festival. As at Samhain, the lighting of bonfires was an important rite. Cattle were driven through the smoke to protect them in the coming season. Beltane may be connected with the Austrian deity Belenos, who was particularly associated with pastoralism, or it may simply take its name from the bright (bel) fires which were part of its celebration. Beltane is the only festival recorded in the ninth-century Welsh tales, a time when the Otherworld communicates with the world of humans, either through portents such as the dragon fight in the tale of Lludd and Llevelys, or through apparitions such as the hero Pwyll’s sighting of the goddess Rhiannon.”

Later, around the 12th century, “May Baskets” became common practice in Germanic culture, which involved hanging flowers on strangers’ doorknobs or delivering flowers to friends, family, and the local community. This is still done today in many parts of the world, where people will anonymously leave flowers on people’s doorsteps in honor of the season. Essentially, May Day revolves around life, youth, and the beauty of the natural world around us. Through the blessing and beauty of the May Queen, we are propelled into the new farming season with inspiration and vigor.

As we can see from these various historical accounts, this particular event was of significant importance to not only Germanic and Celtic Pagans, but a pan-European celebration centered around a specific goddess, ritual cleansing, and Sun worship. Plenty of other cultures outside of Europe celebrate this occasion as well, such as some Native Americans, Persians, and Hindus. This renewal of life has been central to human experience for most of its history, promising us the glory of Summer and the proliferation of life.

In “Sorcery and Religion in Ancient Scandinavia,” Vikernes writes:

“On White Queen Monday they travelled the land to collect bacon, flour, eggs and other white food items for the large bride’s race. Dressed in white and wearing ribbons and wreaths of flowers they danced and sang all the way, from farm to farm, women and men, girls and boys, led by the king (alias the May King) and the queen (alias the May Queen), whether they were sorcerers or deities. The king and queen sat in a carriage, drawn by horses or the others in the procession. The queen did all the talking and the ladies and girls sang “Bride, bride, most beautiful bride”, to invite to the race all the women who believed they stood a chance at winning the bride’s race. The females in the procession wore men’s clothes on their upper bodies, and the men wore dresses, because they represented the hermaphroditic spirits. This custom remained even after the belief in spirits was supplemented with a belief in deities.”

On our homestead, May Day generally consists of uncovering our Freyr idol and walking him through the gardens and fields, either in a small mock-wagon or by hand. Once we have visited all the necessary areas, we return the idol to his altar and leave generous offerings for his blessings and fortune. Two fires are built in front of the altar and each ritual participant walks between them, purifying themselves of yearly baggage and giving personal thanks to the great Yngvi-Freyr. By doing this, each person can shed negative, dark, detrimental energies; inspiring wellbeing, clarity, and positive development.

ᚠᚢᚦᚬᚱᚴ (FUTHORC)

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The Younger Futhark (Futhorc) emerged around the 8th century C.E. in Scandinavia and is comprised of 16 runes. These runes were developed from the older 24 rune system we now call the Elder Futhark. Because of this reduction in symbols, some runes inevitably absorbed others in the process, making the system more cryptic. This also made reading and writing more complicated, as now some runes could supply a wider array of sounds. We see this for instance in the Tyr (ᛏ) rune, which indicates the “t” sound, now symbolizing the “d” sound as well, or in the Bjarkan (ᛒ) rune, which represents the “b” sound, now including the “p” sound as well. However, the rune with the most sounds is the Ur (ᚢ) rune, which includes over 5 different phonetic values such as U/W/V/Y/O.

This galdr track includes 16 repetitions of the Younger Futhorc, intended to help with meditation, memorization, and focus.

May it be of use to practitioners and anyone wanting to learn the runes.

Hailaz

Nauthiz

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Spring Equinox/Ostara

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Othin Galdr

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Imbolc

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Imbolc, an Old Irish word meaning “in the belly”, is the time of year when we eagerly await the changing weather in order to judge the remaining duration of Winter. On this day, if it snows or is very harsh outside, we rejoice, because according to ancient Irish Celtic tradition, it means that the Winter Goddess, Cailleach (Veiled One), is asleep and Winter will likely end soon. However, if the weather is fair and fine, we can expect Cailleach to be out collecting more firewood and supplies, ensuring a longer and more treacherous Winter ahead. So, during this time, we hope for harsh weather and make offerings to various deities, generally Cailleach (Hel), Odin, and the local spirits in order to gain their favor. It is wise to be cautious of one’s noise production on this day so as to not wake the sleeping Crone.

Jones and Pennick give us a glimpse into these ancient Celtic customs:

“…the goddess known as Brighde in Ireland, Bride in Scotland and possibly Brigantia in the north of Britain. She had to do with warmth, fire, summer and possibly the Sun, since an Irish legend tells that in winter she was imprisoned in an icy mountain by a one-eyed hag.’ In some places she presided over thermal springs, presumably as the underground Sun, and in Scotland until the mid-twentieth century she was welcomed in at Imbolc (1 February) by the symbolic rekindling of the hearth fire after the house had been springcleaned from top to bottom.”

Reverence for fire and the Sun are important during this day, as soon the warmth of Spring will be arriving, bringing in longer days. Some European tribes marked Imbolc as their official beginning of Spring, but most considered it a celebration (and observation) of the ending Winter and the new beginning that lay ahead. Cleaning of the house and hearth would be essential during this time, preparing the living area for the next year of activities. Animal pens and beds would be changed and laundry would be washed. For those further North or in higher elevations, this day would have likely been celebrated differently, as we will see in the later quoted material.

In “Celtic Mythology and Religion,” Macbain writes:

“Candlemas day is known as La Fheill-Brighde, St Brigit’s day, who is really the canonised fire-goddess, the Vesta of the heathen Gaels. Some customs in regard to her worship were mentioned already, and Martin relates an interesting custom in the Western Isles on Candlemas, showing St Brigit clearly on the aspect of Vesta, the hearth and home goddess. The mistress and servants of each family take a sheaf of oats and dress it up in women’s apparel, put it in a large basket and lay a wooden club by it, and this they call Briid’s-bed, and then they cry thrice, “Briid is come, Briid is welcome.” Next morning they look in the ashes to see the impression of Briid’s club there, and if they do they reckon it a true presage of a good crop and prosperous year, and the contrary they regard an ill omen.”

As with the divination of ashes described above, various other means of prophecy would be undertaken to gather as much insight into the current (and future) situation as possible. Divination is a window into the workings of fate, a way to receive information directly from the wide Web of Wyrd. These cryptic bits of insight would be deciphered by a seer or seeress, sometimes a traveling witch, priestess, or the man of the household (priest). This would be their compass for how to focus their attention and energy as the year unfolded.

In “Sorcery and Religion in Ancient Scandinavia,” Vikernes writes:

“The 7th Sunday before Easter, usually the 1st of Þrúðheimr, was known as Washing, known from Gaelic as Imbolc or Imbolg (“washing”), and was regarded as the first day of spring. Washing lasted for a full week. The Sunday of Washing was called Pork Sunday, and this was the day Hel’s horse arrived with the news that Baldr would return. Everyone therefore gave thanks to Hel on this day. Pork Sunday was the day they transferred the fertility of spring to the women, by whipping their behinds with fresh birch branches. This custom survived well into the age of gods, and a form of this is in fact still practised in parts of Scandinavia.”

Common themes regarding this time of year include fire reverence, goddess worship, special recognition of the Sun, and special veneration to the Winter Crone Cailleach (Hel). Exceptional attention was paid to washing and cleaning, as well as creating a new fire in the hearth of the home. Offerings were made to various deities in order to be blessed with a prosperous year and good health. With Imbolc came the glimmer of Spring and the glorious days of plenty that lie ahead. In many ways, this celebration started the people off on a clean slate.

Galdr (Odin, Norns, Wild Hunt)

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This galdr track was created for prayer, meditation, and ritual purposes.

Through the rhythm and words, one is encouraged to dissolve into space and time, traveling with the spirits of the Wild Hunt surrounded by a myriad of runes. Short prayers to Odin and the Norns are recited to gain favor, prosperity, and divine inspiration.

This poem was composed around the Winter Solstice of 2024.

May it be of use to practitioners.

Hailaz and good Yule to all!

Samhain/Álfablót

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Samhain is a time when the spirits of nature, the dead, and the gods are most likely to emerge to walk amongst the living. During these days, when daylight becomes shorter and shorter, nature around us seems to die and shed its vitality, leaving trunks and branches barren, resembling bones protruding from the forest soil. This is a time when we are meant to shift our focus from outdoors to indoors and shed our dead weight from the previous year. By doing this, we are mirroring the process of nature and turning our energy inward. During this time of year come the final harvests, meaning that the workload is drastically cut down and many daily activities change. These hours were to now be replaced with indoor tasks such as tending to animals, repairing tools, spiritual practice, and performing various crafts such as woodworking, writing, or blacksmithing.

It is customary to make offerings to the deities, ancestors, and wandering spirits during this time in order to receive their favors, blessings, and good luck. We please the spirits to avoid their wrath. We offer to the ancestors to uphold family honor. We give our veneration to the gods to gain their power and visage. By performing rituals during this particular time of year, one enables themselves to access various forces and gain insight into the past, future, and matters regarding cause and effect within the present which will aid one’s progress moving forward.

In “A History of Pagan Europe” by Jones & Pennick, they write:

“Samhain (1 November). This was the most important festival of the year, showing the pastoralist, rather than agricultural, origin of the calendar. Samhain was the end of the grazing season, when flocks and herds were collected together, and only the breeding stock set aside from slaughter. It was a time of gathering-together of the tribe at their ritual centre for rituals of death and renewal, dedicated to the union of the tribal god (in Ireland, the Daghda) with a goddess of sovereignty, the Morrigan, or, more localised, Boann, deity of the River Boyne.”

As the last of the great harvests, Samhain brings reward and celebration, the end of one year and the transition into the next. According to many European tribes, Samhain marked the turning point between the years and represented the New Year celebration of their cultures. With Samhain we descend into “night,” resembling the womb of the goddess or the abode in which she resides. The goddess reigning over this time of year was almost always in the form of a grim, fate-controlling hag or crone, such as Hel or the Morrigan.

In “Celtic Mythology and Religion,” Macbain writes:

“Equal to Beltane in importance was the solemnity of Hallowe’en, known in Gaelic as Samhuinn or ‘summerend.’ Like Beltan it was sacred to the gods of light and of earth; Ceres, Apollo, and Dis also, must have been the deities whose worship was honoured. The earth goddess was celebrated for the ingathering of the fruits; Apollo or Belinus and Proserpine were bewailed for their disappearing from earth, and Dis, who was god of death and winter’s cold, and who was especially worshipped by the Celts, as Caesar says, was implored for mercy, and his subjects, the manes of the dead, had special worship directed to them. It was, indeed, a great festival—the festival of fire, fruits, and death.”

In reference to Norse and Germanic paganism, we see the worship of elves and land spirits was also common during this time. In modern Germanic paganism, many people celebrate Samhain under the name Álfablót (Elf Sacrifice), which is a time when harvests are reaped and sacrifices are made to the elves and gods. Elves and the dead are strongly connected to the ancient mounds of the Pagans, therefore, much of the activity surrounding this festival would have likely involved distributing offerings to the gods and conducting sacrifices directly upon the mound (or grave) of the dead. This is where the elves were thought to reside.

In “Sorcery and Religion in Ancient Scandinavia,” Vikernes gives us further examples pertaining to the Nordic new year and pre-Christian Halloween customs. He writes:

“The first holiday of the year was New Year’s Day, better known in English as Halloween (“initiation evening”), and in Gaelic as Samhain (“summer’s end”). The sorcerers and later the gods (i, e. religious kings) and their challengers dressed up as different creatures with access to the realm of the dead. They fasted and hung their clothes in a tree or the gallows, to make it look as if they had hanged themselves. They wounded themselves with a spear, to bleed, smeared ash or white mud all over their bodies to look like the dead, they put on masks and sacrificed a cow or an ox on the grave mound, so that the blood poured down and into the grave underneath; into the realm of the dead. They then blew a horn, in the Bronze Age a lure, to open up the entrance to the realm of the dead. They then traveled into hollow trees, caves in the mountain, holes in the ground, or more commonly into the burial mounds. These were all seen as entrances to the realm of the dead. Inside, in the darkness of the grave, a woman was waiting for them, sprinkled in the sacrificed animal’s blood and dressed like the queen of death. They then took at least some of the objects their dead forebears had been buried with and brought them back out.”

As we can see, Samhain (or Álfablót) type celebrations were not only distinct to Celtic and Germanic culture, but rather appear as a pan-European tradition representing a celebration of the dead, the ancestors, and the final harvests of the year. It is clear that no matter which form of paganism(s) one practices, the celebration and event known to us now as Halloween is of very ancient and sacred importance. Not only as a transitional period between the seasons, but as a time when it was believed to be easiest to pierce the veil between states and interact with beings outside of our normal cognition. It is because of the superstitions and pagan worldviews of the past that we have many (if not all) of our current yearly celebrations.

Fehu Rune Analysis

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Fehu is a rune denoting possessions, wealth, and material resources. In the ancient German tongue, this word would have represented one’s livestock, particularly cattle or other large production animals. Fehu stems from the Proto-Indo-European word péḱu, which translates to “livestock.” Before the common man was able to call land his own, the only things he could really claim ownership of were his animals, assets, and family. This would evolve later into the English word fee, meaning “a right to the use of a superior’s land, inherited estate held of a lord, general property ownership, money paid or owned, payment for service, a prize or reward.” We see this same idea in the Old French word fief, meaning “an estate held by a person on condition of providing military service to a superior, something over which one has rights or exercises control, or an area of dominion.” 

Another connection we find relating to the concept of land ownership is in the word feudalism, meaning “a social system based on personal ownership of resources and personal fealty between a lord and subject.” This word can be broken down into 3 parts as “fe-odal-ism,” which would imply the connection between the noble (odal) and the fee (fe) one pays to essentially sub-lease land from the noble. This fee would be in the form of food, money, or military service. We also can find further evidence in the word fealty, meaning “allegiance to an oath to one’s lord.” 

This rune applies to all things monetary and material, whether in the form of the living flesh of animals or in the cold medium of actual money. Fehu, in this regard, can also be assigned powers of security, abundance, domestication, opportunity, and peace. Esoterically speaking, one could view Fehu as a fire rune, as one’s resources are a type of fuel/fire source, helping to propel us forward with more confidence, and ultimately, more focus towards our goals. Now that we’ve peeled away the outer layers of the Fehu rune, we can look deeper inside for further information. 

Connections can be made to the twin Vanir gods Freyr and Freyja, as this stave belongs to their respective “aett” of runes. Frey(r) has long been known to reside over the homestead, fertility, and success of the farm. His powers are attributed to fair weather, peace, prosperity, and general safety within the “sacred” or enclosed space of the homestead/village. Freyja, on the other hand, represents fertility, lust, beauty, death, and the Earth. In the “Old English Rune Poem” it is said: 

“Wealth is an ease to every man,  

Though each should deal it out greatly 

If he wishes to gain, before his Lord, an honored lot.” 

At this point in history, the author would have been referring to the Christian God. Nonetheless, this could easily refer to Freyr as well, and in fact clearly alludes to him, as the very title of Freyr means “Lord.” This poem, and others, also indicate a certain antagonism of greed, saying one must “deal out” wealth as much as he can do so. 

We see another connection to Fehu and Freyr in the word fairy, which is generally believed to be a being connected with the dead, magical powers, and the natural world. This word is cognate with the Latin Fata, who is the goddess of fate. We also have the English word fey, meaning “dying, dead, spellbound, doomed, or otherworldly.” Here, we can see remnants of powers inherent in the fairy, but also in Freyja, as she is a goddess residing over the dead alongside Odin. This could be insight into the overall order of the Futhark, as one could assume it resembles a Ragnarök-esque circle of events, symbolizing birth, death, and rebirth. Some refer to this as “the doom of the gods,” which could be a possible piece of evidence alluding to the Fehu rune representing doom or death, perhaps hinting at the resurrection of ones “Self” by means of retrieving material possessions from the burial mound; in turn beginning a new cycle, starting with one’s possessions. 

Suggestion for this can be found in “Óláfs Saga Helga,” where King Olaf facilitates his resurrection through the prophetic dreams of Hrani, who takes the possessions of his (Olaf’s) mound to the wife of Herald the Greenlander. After this, she then gives birth to a son who is bestowed the name Olaf, ensuring another life according to their tradition. The new Olaf would later denounce this claim, as Christian ideals had become the norm by then and the concept of reincarnation was abolished in their religion aside from select, “underground” sects. Similarities can be seen in the way Tibetans choose the Dalai Lama; who is shown past possessions to pick from at a young age. If the child chooses the correct objects, he will be recognized as the reincarnated Holy Man. 

Freyr has also been associated with the burial mound, the dead, and the cult of the ancestors. In “Ynglinga Saga” it is said that after Freyr had died, he was buried in a great mound with 3 holes bore into it. Each hole was offered a precious metal of either gold, silver, or copper to ensure good seasons and peace continued throughout the land. In connection with the dead, it is said that King Yngvi also used to perform “utisetta,” or Norse meditation, upon his dead queen’s burial mound. 

One more piece of evidence I will add, in this regard, is the Irish word figh, meaning “to weave together, compose.” Here we see the idea of a new beginning, the “weaving” of a new story, connecting with the ideas we explored in relation to the goddess(es) of fate, who have long been associated with the “spinning” or weaving of the destinies of man and the cosmos. This further ties the rune to the goddess Freyja, who is known for teaching seiðr to Odin; a sorcery generally associated with a metaphysical “weaving, tying, or binding” of a specific target, the weather, or the forces of fate altogether. 

Through this very material and resourceful rune we can form a more broad picture of how it may have been used as it moved through the ages. From a purely terrestrial concept revolving around possessions and livestock to the more metaphysical aspect of fire, energy, and prosperity within the Self and tribe. We are also given objective history into the idea of land ownership and how that system is constructed based on the notion of leasing out lands to those below you in caste. The king leases his land to nobles and the nobles, in turn, lease their land to the farmers/peasants. 

In conclusion, we can be assured that the Fehu rune is a rune of one’s material possessions and that it is a rune of moveable wealth. Further, it can be attributed to gifts of abundance, prosperity, and fertility of the Earth. As this rune moves through the times, it reflects not only money, but the fuel-source it represents in respect to our desires and opportunities. We see esoteric connections to the dead, the burial mound, and the Heathen process of reincarnation associated with the retrieval of “past possessions,” similar to that of the Tibetan practice. These rather obscure connections, upon additional reflection, seem to hold more and more weight within them.